Cambodian Buddhist Monk: CAMBODIAN CULTURE

The Four Keys to Success in Buddhism

Everyone wants to be successful in life, but not all meet with success. Successful people are recognized and respected and the stories of their lives are recorded and studied by both their contemporaries and later generations. They are therefore immortalized and looked upon as a source of creative inspiration for those who desire to succeed likewise.

The Buddha has taught us the way to success in many of his discourses. According to one of these discourses, there four virtues that, when developed, lead to success and enable man to achieve his goals in life. There are Will (chanda), Effort (Viriya), Active Thought (Citta), and Wisdom (Vimamsa).

The first key to success is the will (chanda) to work or to fulfill one’s duties to the best of one’s ability. This means that one should have desire, interest, and determination to work. There should be the right attitude toward what one is expected to do. Will is, in fact, a primary requirement in the execution of one’s responsibilities, without which nothing much can be accomplished.

The second is effort or perseverance in one’s understandings. This implies the ceaseless application of energy to the work one is supposed to do. When we undertake to do something, we should exert ourselves, fully and continually, until the task is completed. If students are merely interested in the subjects they study, but do not want to actively commit themselves, the chance for success would be very slim indeed. Effort is therefore a very important factor for success. We should try to cultivate this virtue in us.

Active thought means the thought about one’s work which is well-directed and constantly applied. Whatever we do, be it great or small, we have to apply our active thought to it, again and again, until it is finished. If we do not succeed at the first attempt, we should not feel discouraged, but should think about it carefully and work even harder. We should be positive in our thinking and firm in our goals.

The last virtue is also very important. Wisdom is necessary in all kinds of activities. When we work, we should always examine the work we do, we should have good planning and a proper understanding of the work. It is not enough to work hard; we should also work wisely, using our intelligence and common sense. W e should work hard and smart. Only those who work in this way will attain a high degree of success. The use of wisdom will prevent us from doing wrong things and ensure our success. It is therefore very important that we learn how to cultivate wisdom and how to use it in all our activities.

A Short History of Buddhism

The history of the Buddha Dharma begins with the enlightenment of the Buddha, who at the age of thirty-five (probably around 528 BCE) awakened from the sleep of delusion that grips all beings in an endless vicious cycle of ignorance and unnecessary suffering (samsara). Having awakened, he decided to “go against the current” and communicate his liberating wakefulness to suffering beings-that is, to teach the Dharma. For forty-five years, he crossed and recrossed India’s central Gangetic plain on foot conveying his profound, brilliant wakefulness directly as well as by means of explanation that grew into a great body of spiritual, psychological and practical doctrine. His enlightened as well as the doctrine leading to it have been passed down though numerous unbroken lineages of teachers, which have spread to many countries. Many of these lineages still flourish.

At the time of the Buddha’s death (ca. 483 BCE), his Dharma was well established in central India. There were many lay followers, but the heart of he Dharma community were the monastics, many of whom were arhats. Numerous monasteries had already been built round about such large cities as Rajagriha, Shravasti, and Vaishali.

The first to assume the Buddha’s mantle, tradition tells, was his disciple Mahakashyapa, who had the duty of establishing an authoritative version of the Buddha’s teachings. Thus, during the first rainy season after the Buddha’s parinirvana, Mahakashyapa convoked an assembly of five hundred arhats. At this assembly, it is said, Anada, the Buddha’s personal attendant, recited all of the master’s discourses (sutras), naming the place where each was given and describing the circumstances. A bhikshu named Upali recited all the rule and procedures the Buddha has established for the conduct of monastic life. Mahashyapa himself recited the matrika, lists of terms organized to provide analytical synopses of the teaching given in the sutras. These three extensive recitations, reviewed and verified by the assembly, became the basis for the Sutra Pitaka (Discourse basket), the Vinaya Pitaka (Discipline Basket), Abhidharma Pitaka (Special Teaching Basket), respectively. The Tripitaka (all three together) is the core of the Buddhist scroiptures. This assembly, held at Rajagrih with the patronage of the Magadhan king Ajatashatru, is called the first council.

In the early centuries after the Buddha’s death, the Buddha Dharma spread throughout India and became a main force in the life of its peoples. Its strength lay in its realized (arhats) teachers and large monasteries that sheltered highly developed spiritual and intellectual communities. Monks traveled frequently between the monasteries, binding them into a powerful network.

As the Dharma spread to different parts of India, differences emerged, particularly regarding the Vinaya, or rules of conduct. Roughly a hundred years after the first council, such discrepancies led to a second council in Vaishali, in which seven hundred arhats censured ten poits of lax conduct on the part of the local monks, notably the acceptance of the donation of gold and silver. In spite of this council and other efforts to maintain unity, gradually, perhaps priamarily because of size alone, the Sangha divided into divergent schools.

Among the principal schools was a conservative faction, the Sthaviravada (way of the elders), which held firmly to the old monastic ideal with the arhat at its center and to the original teaching of he Buddha as expressed in the Tripitaka. Another school, the Mahasanghikas, asserted the fallibility of arhats. It sought to weaken the authority of the monastic elite and open the Dharma gates to the lay community. In this, as well as in certain metaphysical doctrines, the Mahasanghikas prefigured the Mahayana. Another important school was that of he Sarvastivadings (from Sanskrit Sarva asti, all exists), who held the divergent view that past, present, and future realities all exist. In all, eighteen schools with varying shades of opinion on point of doctrine or discipline developed by the end of the third century BCE. However, all considered themselves part of the spiritual family of the Buddha and in general were accepted as such by the others. It was not rare for monks of different schools to live or travel together.

According to the Sthaviravadin tradition (known in Pali as the Theravada), which continues today in Southeast Asia, a Third Council took place in the time o King Ashoka (r. 276-232 BCE) at which the king declared the Sthaviravadin teachings the standard from which all other schools deviated. Perhaps in reaction to this, the Sarvastivadins gradually migrated to the west. They established a bastion in the city of Mathura, form which their influence continued to spread. Over centuries, they dominated the northwest, including all Kashmir and much of Central Asia. Today a Sarvastivadin Vinaya lineage still survives in all the schools of Tibetan Buddhism.

King Ashoka was the third emperor of the Mauyan Empire, which covered all of the Indian subcontinent but its southern tip. His personal espousal of the Dharma and adoption of its principles for the governance of his immense realm meant a quantum leap in the spread of he Buddha’s teachings. The imperial government promulgated the teachings, supported the monasteries, and sent proselytizing missions to the Hellenic states of the northwest and to Southeast Asia. Under King Ashoka, institutions of compassion and nonviolence were established throughout much of India, such as peaceful relations with all neighboring states, hospitals and animal hospitals, especial official to oversee the welfare of local populations, shady rest stops for travelers, and so on. Thus he remains today paragon of a Buddhist ruler, and his reign is looked back upon by Buddhists as a golden age.

The Mauryan Empire soon fragmented, but the Buddha Dharma continued as a dominant force thoughtout India in the early centuries of the common era. The kings of the Satavahana dynasty of central India followed Ashoka in adopting the Dharma as a civilizing and unifying force in governing disparate peoples. King Kanishka (first-second century), whose vast Kushan empire, centered on Gandhara, encompassed northern India and large parts of Central Asia, was a champion of the Dharma, hailed as a second Ashoka. Under his patronage, a fourth council was held at which major new commentaries on the Tripitaka were written, largely under Sarvastivadin influence. Under Kanishka, the Buddha Dharma was firmly planted among the Central Asia peoples whose homelands lay along the Silk Route, whence the way lay open to china. The Kushan Empire also saw the flowering of Gandharan art, which under Hellenistic influence produced Buddha images of extraordinary nobility and beauty.

Traditional accounts of the Fourth Council say that the assembly was composed of arhats under the leadership of the arhat Parshva but also under the accomplished bodhisatta Vasumitra. Indeed it was at this time, about the beginning of the second century, that the way of the bodhisattva, or the Mahayan (Great Vehicle), appeared. It was this form of the Buddha Dharma that was to conquer the north, including China, Japan, Korea, Tibet, and Mongolia.

The most visible manifestation of the Mahayana was a new wave of sutras, scriptures claiming to be the word of the Buddha that had remained hidden until then in other realms of existence. The Mahayana replaced the ideal of the arhat with that of the bodhisattva. Whereas arhats sought to end confusion in themselves in order to escape samsara, bodhisattvas vowed to end confusion in themselves yet remain in samsara to liberate all other sentient beings. The vision of spiritual life broadened beyond the controlled circumstances of cloister and study to include the wide-open situations of the world. Correspondingly, the notion of “Buddha” was no longer limited to a series of historical personages, the last of whom was Shakyamuni, but referred also to a fundamental self-existing principle of spiritual wakefulness or enlightenment. While continuing to accept the old Tripitaka, Mahayanists regarded it as a restricted expression of the Buddha’s teaching, and they characterized those who held to it exclusively as Hinayanists (Small Vehicle).

Great masters shaped the Mahayana in the early centuries of the Common era. Outstanding among them all was Nagarjuna (second or third century), whose name connects him with the nagas (serpent deities) from whose hidden realm he is said to have retrieved the Prajnaparamita sutras, foundation Mahayana scriptures. Nagarjuna was born in South India and became the head of Rajagriha, which was a major stronghold of the Dharma for a thousand years. Nagarjuna’s commentaries and treaties expounded the teaching of the Madhjamaka (Middle Way), one of the two main Mahajana schools. Another great master was Asanga (fourth century), who founded the other main school, the Yogachara, which focused on experience as the ultimate principle.

Through most of the Gupta period (c.300-600), the Buddha Dharma flourished unhindered in India. In the Sixth century, however, hundreds of Buddhist monasteries were destroyed by invading Huns under King Mihirakula. This was a serious blow, but the Dharm revived and flourished once again, mainly in northeastern India under the Pala kings (eight-twelfth centuries). These Buddhist kings patronized the monasteries and built new scholastic centers such Odantapuri near the Ganges some miles east of Nalanda. Through the Hinayana had largely vanished from India by the seventh century, in this last Indian period the Mahayana continued, and yet another form-known as Mantrayana, Vajrayana, or Tantra-became dominant.

Like the Mahayana, the Vijrayana (Diamond Vehicle) was based on a class of scriptures ultimately attributed to the Buddha, in this case known as Tantras. Vajrayana regarded the Hinayana and Mahayana as successive stages on the way to the tantric level. The Vajrayana leaped yet further than the Mahayana in acceptance of the world, holding that all experiences, including the sensual, are sacred manifestations of awakeded mind, the Buddha principle. It emphasized liturgical methods of meditation, or sadhanas, in which the practitioner identified with deities symbolizing various aspect of awakened mind. The palace of the deity, identical with the phenomenal world as a whole, was known as a mandala. In the place of the arhat and the bodhisattva, the Vajrayana placed the siddha, the realized tantric master.

By the thirteenth century, largely as a result of violent suppression by Islamic conquerors, the Buddha Dharma was practically extinct in the land of its birth. However, by this time Hinayana forms were firmly ensconced in Southeast Asia, and varieties of Mahayana and Vajrayana in most of the rest of Asia.

China: The Mahayana entered China through Central Asia at the beginning of the common era. At first it was confused with indigenous Taoism, whose terms it had to borrow. The Kuchean monk Kumarajiva (344-413), brought to China as a prisoner of war, created a new level of precision in Chines Buddhism. His lucid translation and teaching resulted in the formation of the Chines Madhyamaka school (San-lun, three treaties). Paramartha (499-569) was another great translator and teacher. His work made possible the development of Fa-hsiang, or Chines Yogachara, school. Buddha Dharma’s golden age in China was the T’ang period (618-907). Monasteries were numerous and powerful and had the support of the emperors. During this time the other main Chines Dharma schools- Hua yen, T’ien tai, Ch’an, Pour Land, and the tantric Mitsung-made their appearance. In 845, however, came a major persecution of the Dharma community, and the monasteries had to be evacuated. Thereafter the Buddha Dharma in China never recovered its former glory.

The Sung period (960-1279) was a time of blending Taoist, Buddhist, and Confucian ideas and methods. Under the Ming dynasty (1368-1662), a fusion of Ch’an and Pure Land opened the way for a strong lay movement. During the Ching period (1663-1908), the Tibetan Vajrayana made its mark on Chinese Buddhism, mainly through the imperial courts. Communist rule in the twentieth century reduced the Dharma community to a remnant, but in Taiwan the Dharma flourished, predominantly in Pure Land and other popular forms.

Korea: Buddha Dharma came to Korea from China in the fourth century CE. It flourished after the Silla unification in the seventh century. By the tenth century there were Korean versions of most China schools. Paramount were Chan, Huayen and a Vajrayaan form related to the Chinese Mitsung. The heyday of Korean Dharma was the Koryo period (913-1392), during which the comprehensice Tripitaka Koreana was published. Under the Yi dynasty (1392-1910), Confucianism became the state religion and the Buddha Dharma was forced into the background. A revival came after the end of Japanese rule in 1945, when the Won movement, a popular Buddhism much influence by Chan, came to the force. Nowadays, a kind syncretic Buddhism is widespread in Korea.

Japan: The Buddha Dharma was brought to japan from Korea in 522. It received its major impetus from the regent prince Shotoku (r. 593-621), a Japanese Ashoka. He established Buddhism as the state religion of Japan, founded monasteries, and himself wrote important commentaries on the sutra. Initially, it was primarily the Sanron (Sanlun, Madhyamaka) school that spread. In the ninth century, six Japanese schools originally brought from China- Kosha, Hosso, Sanron, Jojitsu, Ritsu, and Kegon were officially recognized, with the imperial house adopting the Kegon Dharma. During the later part of the Heian period (794-1184), the Tendai and tantric Shingon schools became predominant. From the tenth to fourteenth centuries, various Pure Land sects began to prosper. Zen (Chan) came to Japan from China toward the end of the twelfth century, and remained a vital force in Japanes cultural life ever after. Soto and Rinzai are its two main schools. After the appearance of the Nichiren school in the thirteenth century, no further movements developed until modern times. All Japanese schools assimilated aspects of indigenous Shinto Kami and ancestor worship. Since World War II, various modernizing lay movements such as Soka-gakkai and Rissho Kosei-kai have developed. Japan today boasts an unparalleled variety of Buddhist sects.

Tibet: The Buddha Dharma of Tibet (and Himalaya countries such as Sikkim, Bhutan, and Ladakh) preserved and developed the Vajrayana tradition of late India Buddhism and joined it with the Sarvastivadin monastic rule. The first spreading of Buddhism was initiated by King Trisong Detsen (755-797) who invited to Tibet the Indian pandit Shantarakshita, notable for his brilliant synthesis of the Madhayamaka and Yogachara, and the great Indian siddha Padmasambhava. The tradition of the Nyingma school stems from this time. After a period of persecution, a second spreading came in the eleventh century, resulting in the foundation of the Kagyu and Shakya schools. A major part of India Buddhist writings were translated to form the Tibetan canon, which included tantric scriptures and commentaries, preserving many texts otherwise lost. In the fourth century, a reform movement resulted in the formation of the Gelukpa school, the fourth of the principal schools of Tibetan Buddhism. By the late twentieth century, as a result of Chinese repression Buddhism in Tibet was reduced to a vestige, but it remained in Sikkim and Bhutan. Centers of Tibetan Buddhism also developed in northern India and Nepal as well as in Europe, Australia, and North America.

Mongolia: The Mongols were definitely converted to Tibetan Buddhism in the sixteenth century. Scriptures and liturgies were translated into Mongolian, and the four principal Tibetan schools flourished until the Communist takeover of the twentieth century.

Vietnam: Vietnam lay under Chinese influence, and the Chinese Mahayana sects of Chan (Thien) and Pure Land (Tindo) were well established in the country by the end of the first millennium. Theravada was introduced by the Khmers but remained largely confined to areas along the Cambodia border. A modern social-action-oriented movement fusing the two Mahayana sects began in Saigon in 1932. In the 1963 Theravadans joined this movement, and a United Buddhist Congregation of Vietnam existed fleetingly. Today Buddhists in Vietnam remain intensely involved in politics and social action.

Burma: Emissaries sent by King Ashoka in the third century BCE first brought the Dharma to Burma. By the fifth century, the Theravada was well established, and by the seventh century the Mahayana had appeared in region near the Chinese border. By the eighth century, the Vajrayana was also present, and all three forms continued to coexist until King Anaratha established the Theravada throughout the land in the eleventh century. Pagan, the royal capital in the north, was adorned with thousands upon thousands of Buddhist stupas and temples, and was the principal bastion of Buddha Dharma on earth until sacked by the Mongols in 1287. In succeeding centuries the Theravada continued strong, interaction closely at times with the Dharma centers of Ceylon. The Burmese form of Theravada acquired a unique flavor through its assimilation of folk beliefs connected with spirits of all kinds known as nats. Today 85 percent of Burmese are Buddhist, and Buddhism is the official religion of the country.

Cambodia (Kampuchea): The Buddhism of the Sarvastivadin school spread to Cambodia in the third century BCE and reached a high point in the fifth and sixth centuries. By the end of the eighth century, elements of Mahayana had also appeared. Succeeding brought a fusion of Buddha Dharma with Shaivite Hinduism. In the fourteenth century, however, the Theravada was firmly imposed on the country by royal house, and it has remained dominant. In 1955 Prince Norodom Sihanouk sought to unite the country under the banner of king, Dharma, and socialism. Buddhism in Burma has remained associated with political left.

Sri Lanka (Ceylon): in the third century BCE, King Devanampiya Tissa was converted to Theravada Buddhism by King Ashoka’s son, Mahinda. The Sinhalese king built the Mahavihara monastery and there enshrined a branch of the Bodhi Tree that had been brought from India. For more than two millennia since that time, the Mahavihara has been a powerful force in the Buddhism of Ceylon and other countries of Southeast Asia, notable Burma and Thailand. The Theravada in Ceylon remains the oldest continuous Dharma tradition anywhere in the world. Nonetheless, factions reflecting the influence of other Indian or Theravada schools played a significant role. These centered around other great Sinhalese monasteries such as Abhayagirivihara and the Jetavanavihara. Mahayana and tantric influences are also traceable, and Tamil Hinduism had an ongoing influence outside the monasteries. Associated with the Mahavihara was the preeminent teacher and writer Buddhaghosha (fl. Fourth-fifth century), whose great Vishuddimagga (Path of Purity) gives a definitive account of the Theravada. In the twelfth century King Parakkambahu forcibly imposed the Mahaviharan brand of Theravada on he entire country.

The attempted conversion of the country to Christianity by Portugues and Dutch colonists in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries greatly weakened the Dharma in Ceylon but made it a rallying point for Sinhalese nationalism. In the following centuries Sinhalese Kings turned to Burma and Thailand to refresh Sinhales monastic lineages. In the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, many Europeans came to the aid of Singhalese Buddhism. By the time of independence in 1948, the Theravada was again thriving in Ceylon and exercising significant influence beyond its borders.

Thailand: some forms of Hinayana Buddhism arrived in Thailand from Burma in about the sixth century; however, the Mahyana seems to have been dominant between the eight and thirteenth centuries. From the eleventh century, Hinduist Khmers were a major factor in many regions of the country, but in the thirteenth century the Thai royal house established Theravada Buddhism as the national religion. Eventually the Khmers were converted to Theravada and became strong supporters. In the nineteenth century, the reformist Dhammayuth school, characterized by strict adherence to Vinaya discipline, arose under royal influence. Today it remains the dominant element in Thai Buddhism and has also influenced other countries of Southeast Asia. Ninety-five percent of the Thai population is Buddhist.

The West World: over the last two hundred years many Western intellectuals were drawn to and influenced by Buddhism. Philosophers like Arthur Schopenhauer, Henri Bergson, and others were inspired by the exotic profundity of Buddhist thought. In the twentieth century there has been considerable attention to Buddha Dharma in academic circles, and fairly accurate translation of Buddhist texts have gradually become available since the 1930s. A new level of understanding has come about since the 1950s as authentic Asian meditation masters have established themselves in Western countries and taken on serious Western students. Theravada Buddhism has had a significant impact since 1930s, Zen since the 1950s and tantric Buddhism of Tibet since the 1970s. Recently Westerners have begun assuming leadership in age-old Asian lineage. Of course, significant numbers of Asian Buddhists have reached the West as part of immigrant populations, but thus far there have been little crossover of Buddha Dharma from this source into host cultures.

Tripitaka of Buddhism

The teachings of the Buddha are classified into three major parts, viz, the Vinaya, the Suttanta, and the Abhidhamma. They are collectively called the Tripitaka or the Three Baskets.

Tripitaka is a Sanskit term, and in Pali it is Tipitaka. Tri means three and pitaka means a basket. Just as a basket is used to contain articles for use when needed, even so each of the three pitaka contains various discourses of the Buddha delivered during the forty-five years of his mission plus a few authored by his prominent disciples and endorsed by him. The work thus has its beginning in the first sermon the Lord gave at the Deer Park two months after his enlightenment.

When the Buddha was living, he was the ultimate authority who gave the last words for all problems in the Temple and to who all controversies were referred for final verdict.

Before the Great Demise, however, he did not appoint anyone to succeed him, but indicated, instead, to his followers that the doctrine (Dharma) and the discipline (Vinaya) he had propounded continue to be their Teacher.

The Dharma and Discipline are all there in the Tripitaka, and as such the Tripitaka should be regarded as the highest authority for reference. We pay respect to the Tripitaka because it contains the words of our great Teacher and is itself the most reliable guide in religious matters available to us now.

As Buddhists, we should therefore try to acquaint ourselves with the Tripitaka and consider it our guide in religious understanding and spiritual endeavor. We should read it, try to understand it, and put its wisdoms into practice in our daily life.

A person can benefit from the teaching of the Buddha only when he practices it. The Buddha had discoursed the way and had shown it to us, but it is up to us whether to walk the path or not. If we are wise and good, we should choose to believe and follow him. It would be a great loss if we ignore his words of wisdom and choose to go the wrong way, as do some unwise people who do not know what is good for themselves.

If someone has shown the right direction, you refuse to go, how can you arrive at your destination? If you are hungry and someone gives you food, but you refuse to eat, how can your hunger be satisfied? If you are sick but refuse to take medicine given by a physician, how can you get well and become healthy?

The Buddha is an experienced wayfarer who shows us the way. He is a loving father who gives us food. He is a kind physician who gives us medicine. He is everything to us as far as our spiritual needs are concerned. Those who believe in him and follow his teaching will be free from suffering and attain true happiness.

The Buddha teaches us to avoid evil, to do good, and to purify our minds. It shows us the way to individual and world peace. Everything we should know about spiritual matters is contained in the Tripitaka and, if we are wise enough, we should be able to benefit from it. As Buddhists, we should have a proper insight into this most important and richest treasure of spiritual knowledge and practical wisdoms.

The Viniya Pitaka or the Basket of Discipline deals with those rules and regulations formulated by the Buddha for the Orders of Bhikkhus. They are divided into five major sections and provide a detailed outline for monastic conduct, rites and ceremonies. Broadly speaking, this can be compared to the laws and social norms in secular society.

The Suttanta Pitaka contains those discourses concerning various subjects of wide-ranged significance, social, moral philosophical, and spiritual, and is divided into five major sections. This is, perhaps, the most popular Pitaka, since it does not deal in particular with any specific types of human concerns or confine to any social groups, but extends into all social layers and all spheres of human activities.

All that we find in the Vinaya or the Suttanta are those rules or discourses that the Buddha made in response to certain problems, questions, or situations that presented themselves to him. As such, they are not something detached for life, but concern us in a very positive and direct way.

The Abhidhamma deals mostly with the psychological and philosophical aspects of the doctrine. It is the most difficult of the three, but is also very important for intellectual discipline and better understanding of the Suttanta Pitaka. Subjects taken for deliberation in this Pitaka are what Theravada Buddhism considers the absolute truths, which are four in number, namely Mind, Mental Concomitants, Matter, and Nibbana (Nirvana)

Cambodian Buddhist Monk